Policy Nov 2025

Strengthening Utility Partnerships Fostering Sustainable, Resilient, and Inclusive Sanitation in Kenya

This policy brief aims to support the Kenyan water sector in actions and partnerships that utility managers and policymakers can develop with regulators, academia, funders, enterprises, and other sector partners to expand and sustain water and sanitation services. This is despite financing gaps, challenges in adopting new knowledge and innovation, and the impacts of climate change. It is based on discussions among water and sanitation experts in Kenya and the region.

Download Article

1. African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) (2020) Africa Sanitation Policy Guidelines (ASPG) Draft Outline II, AMCOW, Abuja, Nigeria.
2. Banerjee, S., Wodon, Q., Diallo, A., Pushak, T., Uddin, H., Tsimpo, C. and Foster, V. (2008) Access, Affordability, and Alternatives: Modern Infrastructure Services in Africa, World Bank, Washington, DC.
3. Bovea, M.D., Powell, J.C., Gallardo, A. and Capuz-Rizo, S.F. (2007) ‘The role played by environmental factors in the integration of a transfer station in a municipal solid waste management system’, Waste Management 27: 545–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.03.020>.
4. Chunga, R.M., Ensink, J.H.J, Jenkins, M.W. and Brown, J. (2016) ‘Adopt or adapt: sanitation technology choices in urbanizing Malawi’, PLoS ONE 11(8): 1–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161262>.
5. Collender, G. (2011) ‘Urban sanitation: an unprecedented and growing challenge’, Waterlines 30(4): 289–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.037>.
6. Dewhurst, R. (2018) SFD Thinking: SFD Creation Process and Impacts: Case of Nairobi, Kenya, SFD Promotion Initiative, Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Nairobi, Kenya.
7. Eales, K. (2005) Bringing Pit Emptying out of the Darkness: A Comparison of Approaches in Durban, South Africa, and Kibera, Kenya, Business Partners for Development (BPD), London.
8. ESAWAS (no date) ESAWAS Regulators Association [website] <https://www.esawas.org/> (accessed 27 July 2020).
9. Graham, J.P. and Polizzotto, M.L. (2013) ‘Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review’, Environmental Health Perspectives 121(5): 521–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206028>.
10. Ingallinella, A.M., Sanguinetti, G., Koottatep, T., Montangero, A. and Strauss, M. (2002) ‘The challenge of faecal sludge management in urban areas: strategies, regulations and treatment options’, Water Science and Technology 46(10): 285–94 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0355>.
11. Isunju, J.B., Schwartz, K., Schouten, M.A., Johnson, W.P. and van Dijk, M.P. (2011) ‘Socio-economic aspects of improved sanitation in slums: a review’, Public Health 125(6): 368–76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.008>.
12. Jenkins, M.W., Cumming, O. and Cairncross, S. (2015) ‘Pit latrine emptying behavior and demand for sanitation services in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12: 2588–611 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302588>.
13. Kamau, N. and Njiru, H. (2018) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene situation in Kenya’s urban slums’, Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 29(1): 321–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2018.0022>.
14. Katukiza, A.Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C.B., Foppen, J.W.A., Kansiime, F. and Lens, P.N.L. (2012) ‘Sustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums’, Biotechnology Advances 30(5): 964–78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.007>.
15. Klingel, F., Montangero, A., Koné, D. and Strauss, M. (2002) Fecal Sludge Management in Developing Countries: A Planning Manual, Sandec, Eawag, Duebendorf, Switzerland.
16. Mansour, G., Oyaya, C. and Owor, M. (2017) Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Kenya, Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP), London.
17. Ministry of Health (2016) Kenya Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Policy 2016–2030, Ministry of Health, Republic of Kenya, Kenya.
18. Mukuru Situational Analysis (2017) Mukuru – Nairobi, Kenya. 2017 Situational Analysis: Mukuru Kwa Njenga, Kwa Reuben & Viwandani, Technical paper, UC Berkeley, University of Nairobi, Muungano Alliance, Strathmore University, and Katiba Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
19. Nakagiri, A., Niwagaba, C.B., Nyenje, P.M., Kulabako, R.N., Tumuhairwe, J.B. and Kansiime, F. (2016) ‘Are pit latrines in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances’, BMC Public Health 16(120): 1–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2772-z>.
20. Nakagiri, A., Niwagaba, C.B., Nyenje, P.M., Kulabako, R.N., Tumuhairwe, J.B. and Kansiime, F. (2017) ‘Assessing ambient and internal environmental conditions of pit latrines in urban slums of Kampala, Uganda: effect on performance’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 7(1): 92–101 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.085>.
21. Ogwueleka, T.C. (2009) ‘Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria’, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering 6(3): 173–80.
22. Peal, A., Evans, B., Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. (2015) A Review of Fecal Sludge Management in 12 Cities, World Bank – Water and Sanitation Program, Washington, DC.
23. Republic of Kenya (1999) Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act 1999, National Council for Law Reporting with the Authority of the Attorney-General, Nairobi, Kenya.
24. Sanergy (no date) ‘Approach: Build’ [website] <http://www.sanergy.com/approach/> (accessed 27 July 2020).
25. Sanivation (no date) ‘Naivasha: Waste-to-energy plant’ [online] <https://sanivation.com/naivasha> (accessed 17 July 2020).
26. Stringel, S.S. (2017) Field visit to Pivot faecal sludge treatment plant, in Kigali, Rwanda [online] <http://prg.ukzn.ac.za/docs/default-source/news-documents/visit-rwanda-santi—fs-plant-pivot—v3.pdf?sfvrsn=0> (accessed 17 July 2020).
27. Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41: 1793–819 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.
28. UNICEF and WHO (2008) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: Special Focus on Sanitation, WHO, Geneva.
29. WHO and UNICEF (2017) ‘JMP data’ [online] <https://washdata.org/data> (accessed 17 October 2019).
30. WSUP (2018) Regulatory Reform: Raising the Standard of Pit-emptying Services in Kisumu [pdf] <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2018/03/PN034-ENGLISH-Regulation-in-Kisumu.pdf> [accessed 27 August 2020].
31. African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) (2020) Africa Sanitation Policy Guidelines (ASPG) Draft Outline II, AMCOW, Abuja, Nigeria.
32. Banerjee, S., Wodon, Q., Diallo, A., Pushak, T., Uddin, H., Tsimpo, C. and Foster, V. (2008) Access, Affordability, and Alternatives: Modern Infrastructure Services in Africa, World Bank, Washington, DC.
33. Bovea, M.D., Powell, J.C., Gallardo, A. and Capuz-Rizo, S.F. (2007) ‘The role played by environmental factors in the integration of a transfer station in a municipal solid waste management system’, Waste Management 27: 545–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.03.020>.
34. Chunga, R.M., Ensink, J.H.J, Jenkins, M.W. and Brown, J. (2016) ‘Adopt or adapt: sanitation technology choices in urbanizing Malawi’, PLoS ONE 11(8): 1–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161262>.
35. Collender, G. (2011) ‘Urban sanitation: an unprecedented and growing challenge’, Waterlines 30(4): 289–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.037>.
36. Dewhurst, R. (2018) SFD Thinking: SFD Creation Process and Impacts: Case of Nairobi, Kenya, SFD Promotion Initiative, Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Nairobi, Kenya.
37. Eales, K. (2005) Bringing Pit Emptying out of the Darkness: A Comparison of Approaches in Durban, South Africa, and Kibera, Kenya, Business Partners for Development (BPD), London.
38. ESAWAS (no date) ESAWAS Regulators Association [website] <https://www.esawas.org/> (accessed 27 July 2020).
39. Graham, J.P. and Polizzotto, M.L. (2013) ‘Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review’, Environmental Health Perspectives 121(5): 521–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206028>.
40. Ingallinella, A.M., Sanguinetti, G., Koottatep, T., Montangero, A. and Strauss, M. (2002) ‘The challenge of faecal sludge management in urban areas: strategies, regulations and treatment options’, Water Science and Technology 46(10): 285–94 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0355>.
41. Isunju, J.B., Schwartz, K., Schouten, M.A., Johnson, W.P. and van Dijk, M.P. (2011) ‘Socio-economic aspects of improved sanitation in slums: a review’, Public Health 125(6): 368–76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.008>.
42. Jenkins, M.W., Cumming, O. and Cairncross, S. (2015) ‘Pit latrine emptying behavior and demand for sanitation services in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12: 2588–611 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302588>.
43. Kamau, N. and Njiru, H. (2018) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene situation in Kenya’s urban slums’, Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 29(1): 321–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2018.0022>.
44. Katukiza, A.Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C.B., Foppen, J.W.A., Kansiime, F. and Lens, P.N.L. (2012) ‘Sustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums’, Biotechnology Advances 30(5): 964–78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.007>.
45. Klingel, F., Montangero, A., Koné, D. and Strauss, M. (2002) Fecal Sludge Management in Developing Countries: A Planning Manual, Sandec, Eawag, Duebendorf, Switzerland.
46. Mansour, G., Oyaya, C. and Owor, M. (2017) Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Kenya, Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP), London.
47. Ministry of Health (2016) Kenya Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Policy 2016–2030, Ministry of Health, Republic of Kenya, Kenya.
48. Mukuru Situational Analysis (2017) Mukuru – Nairobi, Kenya. 2017 Situational Analysis: Mukuru Kwa Njenga, Kwa Reuben & Viwandani, Technical paper, UC Berkeley, University of Nairobi, Muungano Alliance, Strathmore University, and Katiba Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
49. Nakagiri, A., Niwagaba, C.B., Nyenje, P.M., Kulabako, R.N., Tumuhairwe, J.B. and Kansiime, F. (2016) ‘Are pit latrines in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances’, BMC Public Health 16(120): 1–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2772-z>.
50. Nakagiri, A., Niwagaba, C.B., Nyenje, P.M., Kulabako, R.N., Tumuhairwe, J.B. and Kansiime, F. (2017) ‘Assessing ambient and internal environmental conditions of pit latrines in urban slums of Kampala, Uganda: effect on performance’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 7(1): 92–101 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.085>.
51. Ogwueleka, T.C. (2009) ‘Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria’, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering 6(3): 173–80.
52. Peal, A., Evans, B., Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. (2015) A Review of Fecal Sludge Management in 12 Cities, World Bank – Water and Sanitation Program, Washington, DC.
53. Republic of Kenya (1999) Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act 1999, National Council for Law Reporting with the Authority of the Attorney-General, Nairobi, Kenya.
54. Sanergy (no date) ‘Approach: Build’ [website] <http://www.sanergy.com/approach/> (accessed 27 July 2020).
55. Sanivation (no date) ‘Naivasha: Waste-to-energy plant’ [online] <https://sanivation.com/naivasha> (accessed 17 July 2020).
56. Stringel, S.S. (2017) Field visit to Pivot faecal sludge treatment plant, in Kigali, Rwanda [online] <http://prg.ukzn.ac.za/docs/default-source/news-documents/visit-rwanda-santi—fs-plant-pivot—v3.pdf?sfvrsn=0> (accessed 17 July 2020).
57. Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41: 1793–819 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.
58. UNICEF and WHO (2008) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: Special Focus on Sanitation, WHO, Geneva.
59. WHO and UNICEF (2017) ‘JMP data’ [online] <https://washdata.org/data> (accessed 17 October 2019).
60. WSUP (2018) Regulatory Reform: Raising the Standard of Pit-emptying Services in Kisumu [pdf] <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2018/03/PN034-ENGLISH-Regulation-in-Kisumu.pdf> [accessed 27 August 2020].

Permeable membrane dewatering of faecal sludge from pit latrines at a transfer station in Nairobi, Kenya

Rhodes-Dicker, Leandra

Ward, Barbara J.

Mwalugongo, Wali

Stradley, Lindsay

Environmental Technology, Vol. 43 (2022), Iss. 14 P.2218

https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1870573 [Citations: 0]